General Psychology Of Sex And Gender Psychology Essay

General Psychology Of Sex And Gender Psychology Essay The topics I have chosen for consideration of psychological research are language, and sex and gender. The approaches taken will be analysed the topic in general terms and not to focus on one particular aspect at detailed levels. It points to the lack of a conclusive answer which is caused by Psychology as a discipline being relatively young and still in early stages with a lack of adequately strong theories that might assist to connect otherwise contrasting perspectives co existing. The report concludes that different perspectives within psychology can coexist at times, though conflict is frequent throughout. Sex and Gender The Psychology of sex and gender is one the most topical, important and engaging subjects that psychology, it illustrates many of the difficult issues that psychological explanations must address, including the political implications of different perspectives and the challenging of integrating explanations. It has been a controversial topic since the inception of psychology as a discipline and it powerful illustrates some of the diverse approaches with the field. A deliberation of how psychology approaches the analysis of sex and gender discloses four psychological perspectives, these are: Biological sex differences: Explaining the differences between male and female and biological correlates of behaviour. Investigations ere conducted through scientific processes Evolutionary psychology: Explaining the differences in the behaviour between the sexes in terms of behavioural selection for reproductive fitness. Test are conducted empirically Social constructionist theory: Gender differences between the sexes through the study of discourse in various historical, cultural and social contexts and so is hermeneutic. Psychoanalytic psychology: Development and meaning of sexual differences. Studies are largely done through clinical observation. Direct impressions of the four perspectives are objects of knowledge of each of the perspectives are all valid and useful in general psychology of sex and gender,. They pose somewhat different questions, have different objects of knowledge and use different notions of evidences. These perspectives may be complementary, conflicting however the scope for co-existence is not transparent. Given that the perspectives do not share common objects of knowledge, however is there can be an underlying hope for complementary theories in which together they all contribute to a broad understanding. Sex refer to the biological basis of differences between the sexes, where as gender refers to social constructed categories pertaining to these differences. Assigning a sex to humans can sometimes be a complex process, biological characteristics such as genetics and hormonal used to designate male or female, can be unreliable in small proportions of case, due to genetic abnormalities, such as, Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome (AIS) and Klinefelterss Syndrome ((XXY) (OU, p137) The biological and evolutionary perspectives certainly seem complementary at theoretic level in which both consider biological sex as the fonudation for gender and view conflicts between sexes as biological characteristics that have been cycled through during evolution. Evolutionary psychologists argue that sexual selections and the different optimal reproductive styles of our male female ancestors have results in some differences in the behavioural predispositions of the two sexes. These are seen to particularly apparent in the area of sexual behaviours and attitudes. Buss (1992), found while both sexes reported experiencing jealousy at the though of their partner being involved with another person, there were differences in the focus of their concerned. OU,p145) In humans, unlike in other animals, clear differences in brain structures that correlate with differences in adult behaviour patterns have proven difficult to demonstrate. Nonetheless, imaging studies show some sex differences in brain functioning of Western adults. This is probably due, at least in part, to the brains plasticity.(Giedd et al, 1999) )p140). While some sex differences are clearly established at birth for most individuals, bodies and brained may become gendered over lifetime of use. A explanations would appear to be consistent with research findings from cross-cultural differences in male and females sexual behaviours, which Allen and Gorski, 1990 study has backed (OU, p139) Nevertheless, biological psychology sets out to explain differences with in male and female psychology in terms of chosen physiological features, e.g. dimorphism in brain structures ( Hofman and Swaab, 1991,OU p.139). Additionally the evolutionary psychologists would primarily contend in favour of selected behavioural features such as differences between sexual attitudes between the sexes ( Clark and Hatfield, 1989, OU p.146). Thus, in that respect a conflict is apprent at the level of analysis, hence it is ironic that evolutionary psychology must dependently coinside with biological psychology since, given the intelligible complusions on its capacity to carryout the types of empirical reserach that might could be hoped for (Herrnstein-Smith, 2000,, OU p.141), it is dependent on a particulr amount of certification from the biological perspective, amongst others (OU, 2007, pp.184). From a social constructionist point of view, they regard sex and gender as features that are declared only through discourse and action. These are repercussion, of the individuals behaviour and experience within a cultural, social and historical context. The depth of the conflict is illustrated by a comparison of evolutionary studies that stress cross-cultural stability in particular sexual preferences ( Buss and Schmitt, 1993, OU, p.148, ) and social constructionist ideas such as Sandra Bem, who developed the idea of the cultural lens of musicality and femininity. This lens is a way of perceiving the world that makes behaviour and experiences gendered, this is called the Gender Schema Theory (1994, Holloway et al, 2007, OU p.153). According to the social constructionist perspectives, biological sex is not central to explaining what it is to be a man or a women, rather it is a signpost to which a whole set of us socially constructed gender differences are attached. In this account, social constructionist created discourse about masculinity and femininity are used by individual to create their own gendered subject positions. Whereas the biological and evolutionary perspectives correspond that biological sex consists at the center of explaining gender, the social constructionist perspective categorically rejects that notion, primarly for political reasons. In relation to Sex and Gender, political differences are often exposed when conflicting accounts of differences occur. Gender and sexuality came to be seen, through Freuds work, as having far-reaching implications for the development of it self. It largely correlates the social constructionist, in conditions of its interpretive or hermeneutic methodology. Therefore both the social constructionist and psychoanalytic perspectives dispute with the biological and evolutionary persptetives at the methodological level of understanding. Contrastingly however the psychoanalysis perspective acknowledges that both biological and cultural contributions to its hypothesis make up, though it is not without its share of difference however. Within the perspective, a important critical developments in the psychoanalytic theory sex and gender includes Freuds notion for the symbolic significance of the penis( and penis envy) quickly came under scrutiny from feminist psychologists to scientific practices, through Freud failure to consider the significant of womens genitals. (OU, Horney, 1926, , 2007, p.164). Language and Meaning There are three main perspectives used to examine the complex area of language, these are: Theory Methods Themes. These perspectives focus on different aspects of language including evolutionary developments of languages, the processing of languages and the construction of meaning through interaction. From the study of language and meaning, an evenly conniving combination of possible co-existence, complementory and conflicting aspects can be found when comparing the three principal perspectives. The evolutionary perspective sets out to explore language to understand how are related structurally and historically, how they are used differently by various social and cultural groups and how languages is used to communicate and create meaning. Language is the main medium for communication between humans beings and where we express, explore and pursue those goals that mean most to us . It can be concvied to view the three perspectives as at to the lowest degree co-existent. Their objectives of knowledge are different and one could anticipate their cumulative intentions to contribute to some sort of merged theroy Nevertheless, the possible conflict between the cognitive and social constructionist perspectives is disclosed in how they consider meaning as the object of knowledge. For the congntive view it is something whihc is manufactured internally by the individual before transmission, and subsequently rebuilt by the whoever present viewing. For the social view it is negotiated as a consequence of discourse between individuals, in which meaning emerges as the result of a complex exchange of intentions, interpretations and power-relations. Therefore, there is cause for discrepancy, as to what meaning is and where it comes from (Sperber and Wilson 1986, OU, p100). It therefore approprant to rationalise a claim of conflict since the types of meaning adopted by the two perspectives are themselves contratsting. A major social constructionist disagreement with a formulist cognitive perspective is that cognitive processes cannot be transparently reported. The argument is one that cognitive psychologist have long noted. Talking about early research into the cognitive modelling of language Boden (1977, pp.113ff, et passim) notes that a persons comprhendion of language in a given instance is dependent, not merely from their knowledge of the einviroment surrounding them, but importantly on their understanding of their relationship with who they communicate with. Within the evolutionary perspective there is also a argument as to whether language evolved as an adaptation advantage and was the foundation for other cognitive abilities. Pinker (1994) believes that languages may have evolved through natural selection, perhaps in conjunction with other cognitive abilities, OU, p83) or as a reaction of selection for an ability to form our Metarepresentation (Sperber, 2000, p.86). These are contradictory and conflicting views.. The major differences between psychological methods based on natural science principles and those based those on hermeneutic principles means that preservatives based on these methods may have difficulty achieving more than uneasy coexistence. Psychologists do not always abide on such significant basic principle. The questions they posture can often be hard to extract without abridging the prognostic ability of whatever solution, in comparion to physics or chemisty which can be measured through of year thousands of years evidence, psychology on the other hand as a recognisable discipline has been prenst of litte over a hundread years. A inevitable conclusion is that psychology is characterised by perspectives that are present at more then one level on conflict, co-existenct or complementtory aspects, No perspective on its own can tell the whole story. The perspectives and levels of analysis and explanations cannot just be combined without an account of how they interact.

Oncologist paper :: treating cancer

Classification of cancer determines appropriate treatment and helps determine the prognosis. Cancer develops progressively from an alteration in a cell’s genetic structure due to mutations, to cells with uncontrolled growth patterns. Classification is m e according to the site of origin, histology (or cell analysis; called grading), and the extent of the disease (called staging). Site of Origin This classification describes the type of tissue in which the cancer cells begin to develop. Here are some common examples of site of origin classification: Adenocarcinoma – originates in glandular tissue Blastoma – originates in embryonic tissue of organs Carcinoma – originates in epithelial tissue (i.e., tissue that lines organs and tubes) Leukemia – originates in tissues that form blood cells Lymphoma – originates in lymphatic tissue Myeloma – originates in bone marrow Sarcoma – originates in connective or supportive tissue (e.g., bone, cartilage, muscle) Grading Grading involves examining tumor cells that have been obtained through biopsy under a microscope. The abnormality of the cells determines the grade of the cancer. Increasing abnormality increases the grade, from 1 – 4. Cells that are well differentiated losely resemble mature, specialized cells. Cells that are undifferentiated are highly abnormal, that is, immature and primitive. Grade 1 Cells slightly abnormal and well differentiated Grade 2 Cells more abnormal and moderately differentiated Grade 3 Cells very abnormal and poorly differentiated Grade 4 Cells immature and undifferentiated Staging Staging is the classification of the extent of the disease. There are several types of staging methods. The tumor, node, metastases (TNM) system classifies cancer by tumor size (T), the degree of regional spread or node involvement (N), and distant meta asis (M). Tumor (T) T0 No evidence of tumor Tis Carcinoma in situ (limited to surface cells) T1–4 Increasing tumor size and involvement Node (N) N0 No lymph node involvement N1–4 Increasing degrees of lymph node involvement Nx Lymph node involvement cannot be assessed Metastases (M) M0 No evidence of distant metastases M1 Evidence of distant metastases A numerical system also is used to classify the extent of disease. Stage 0 Cancer in situ (limited to surface cells) Stage I Cancer limited to the tissue of origin, evidence of tumor growth Stage II Limited local spread of cancerous cells Stage III Extensive local and regional spread Stage IV Distant metastasis A doctor who specialises in treating cancer. A clinical oncologist, or radiotherapist, specialises in treating cancer with radiation, and a medical oncologist specialises in treating cancer with drugs.

Microbiology: Bacteria and Fresh Yogurt Slide

Bacterial Morphology Demonica Britt Microbiology DL1 March 23, 2013 Abstract This lab was performed to identify and familiarize with a microscope while precisely observing various bacterial shapes and their arrangements in different types of specimens of bacteria. The microscope parts and capabilities were clearly identified and used successfully and the bacteria were clearly illustrated showing the bacterial shapes and arrangements with all the appropriate magnification being utilized.Through various magnifications using 10x, 40x and 100x oil immersion lenses, the bacteria specimens, along with fresh and prepared yogurt, demonstrated full visual optical views of their shapes and how the different types were displayed at different levels of magnification. Purpose The purpose of the experiment was to gain full knowledge and experience of operating a microscope while being able to successfully visualize different types of bacterial and yogurt specimen’s shapes and arrangements u sing several magnification techniques by way of 10x, 40x,100x oil immersion lenses and a light source.The main purpose was to observe the shapes and arrangements of microbial bacteria and yogurt. Procedure The lab involved self-provided and labpaq materials to perform several exercises to obtain the purpose of the lab. The lab began with the proper identification of all components of the microscope and their functions. This allowed for preparation of the objective of being able to view specimens at various magnification levels and recognizing their different shapes and how they are arranged contingent upon those identified within the lab itself and the microbiology textbook.Several different slides were observed under 10x and 40x lens magnification: Paramecium conjugation, Yeast, Amoeba Proteus, Ascaris eggs, Anabaena, and Penicillium. This allowed vivid illustrations of the specimens notating their shapes and how they are arranged. The bacteria were observed through the eyepiece at the appropriate focus, resolution, and contrast for maximum visibility. The next part of the lab exercise was observance under an 100x oil immersion lens for more prepared slides: Bacteria Coccus form, Bacteria spirillum, and Bacteria Bacillus form while still maintaining to observe the shapes and arrangements.Additionally, the fresh yogurt slide that was sitting for 24 hours in a dark, warm location was obtained for the next part of the lab experiment. The fresh yogurt slide was prepared by using a toothpick to place a small amount onto a fresh, clean slide with a slide cover placed on top. This was observed for comparison to the prepared yogurt slide included in the lab for any variations in forms. Upon completion of performing the lab, the prepared slides were safely put away, fresh slide washed carefully, fresh yogurt specimen safely discarded, and the microscope cleaned and returned to be stored with the protective cover.Data/Observations – (Data Tables & Photos of Labe led Pics & Observations) The bacteria slides clearly displayed the various types of bacteria shapes and showed how each follow a specified arrangement. Under the lowest magnification the object is relatively smaller and not as easy to see the full format. Whereas the higher the magnification, the bigger and more enhanced the view of the bacteria becomes making the shapes and arrangements relatively obvious. It appeared to become clearer the bigger the object projected to my eye.It became life size in a sense where as it was an image that could be clearly defined, described and duplicated if necessary. The fresh yogurt slide that was set for 24 hours was a more enhanced feature for observing bacteria in yogurt. Its view was very detailed and its shape more recognizable. While the prepared yogurt slide was a more faint view and the color appearing duller. It was visible to me that bacteria in yogurt was more spherical in shape, cocci. Results A. What are the advantages of using bleach as a disinfectant? The disadvantages? The advantages of using 70% alcohol?The disadvantages? Bleach is a common household disinfectant that kills 99. 9 percent of germs whereas others cannot approach this effectiveness. It can be used to sanitize. It can be a disadvantage as it can be inactivated by presence of an organic matter and it has a strong odor and it has a short life in the liquid form that can be sensitive to heat and sunlight. The advantages of using 70% bleach is that it can be capable of killing most bacteria which is safe for skin contact and it prevents dehydration and the alcohol part of it affect the cells in various ways.Some disadvantages are that they are hazardous which contain compounds that are not safe and toxic to human form. B. List three reasons why you might choose to stain a particular slide rather than view it as a wet mount. C. Define the following terms: Chromophore: Acidic Dye: Basic Dye: D. What is the difference between direct and indirect staini ng? E. What is heat fixing? F. Why is it necessary to ensure that your specimens are completely air dried prior to heat fixing? G.Describe what you observed in your plaque smear wet mount, direct stained slide, and indirectly stained slide. What were the similarities? What were the differences? H. Describe what you observed in your cheek smear wet mount, direct stained slide, and indirectly stained slide. What were the similarities? What were the differences? I. Describe what you observed in your yeast wet mount, direct stained slide, and indirectly stained slide. What were the similarities? What were the differences? J. Were the cell types the same in all three specimen sets:Â   yeast, laque, and cheek? How were they similar? How were they different? Conclusion/Discussion Upon performing and completing the experiment I learned that the microscope is a very delicate tool that allows the capability of viewing specimens too small for the human eye. With adjusting the focus, contrast, and resolution, the bacteria become more visible to the eye. On top of that, viewing the specifications at different magnifications the bacteria shapes and arrangements become more present within the specimen.Bacteria comes in different forms and shapes and just by arrangement alone, they can be classified morphologically. It was also visual that there are differences in a fresh slide containing bacteria compared with a slide already prepared. I did not expect to see the differences so vividly displayed, but after using the microscope it was determined that anything not visible to the naked eye still has the capability to be seen and the microscope is the perfect tool to use to be able to do so.

Litigation, Alternative Dispute Resolution And Criminal Laws

Litigation, Alternative Dispute Resolution and Criminal Laws [Case Study: Adele, Roberts and ABC and XYZ] Name of Student:†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. University of the People 04/10/2017 For each of the following scenarios, state whether you believe litigation, ADR, or criminal prosecution is the appropriate response and explain your answer, citing information from the textbook as support for your positions. Introduction In business, disputes that occur between businesses (business to business dispute), employer and employee (business to employee) and business and customers (business to consumers) are inevitable and there are laws that are put in place to ensure that disputes are settled and ethical behaviors are promoted within and outside the†¦show more content†¦68-69) Arbitration is the highest level of ADR where parties vest power in third-party lawmakers to decide a conflict. Arbitration method may be legal binding or non-legal binding, compulsory or free and it is commonly used among businesses and their consumers. The arbitrators, who may be a member of a judiciary listens to the evidences and issues an arbitration awards. (Lau Johnson, 2011, p. 70-74) In addition to the above alternative dispute resolution methods, there is also a higher court of law that handles cases that the ADR cannot handle, which is called litigation. Litigation is a case, filed in the court of law by a plaintiff demanding an equitable remedy. The parties involved in litigation are called litigants such as plaintiff (the victim), counter-plaintiff (initial defendant who is raising a claim against the plaintiff), defendant (the perpetrator), counter-defendant (initial plaintiff who is been sued in return by the defendant), joinder (merging of parties under litigation), et al. It is very expensive to charge people, businesses to court, but litigation is unavoidable in business. 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